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"Some people believe that any characteristic over which we have no control, such as gender, race, and age, should be excluded from insurance underwriting and rating practices" (Baranoff, Brockett, & Kahane, 2009, p.157). This argument reflect the idea that the factors used by insurance companies should be based on the behavior of the people instead of the quality on which they are born.
Risk Classification 风险分类
Risk classification plays an important role in the pricing of the policy. The premium that the customer pays will depend on the category he/she belongs to. Underwriters classify the applicants into four types of risk groups: standard risk, substandard risk, preferred risk and uninsurable/declined risk.
Standard risk. Individuals who have a likelihood of loss or the probability of filing a claim that is not significantly greater than the average are classified as standard risks. Based on the underwriting standards of the insurance company, the people in this group are given a term of insurance without being charged for any extra fees or be subjected to any policy restrictions and they are charged with the standard premium rate (Clark, et al, 2011). Most individual life and health insurance policies are issued at standard premium rates.
Substandard risk. Insured that are classified as substandard risk or rated risk, are those that have a greater chance of filing a claim. Applicants are classified in this group because of their health and/or other factors that makes them more likely to die earlier than those who don't possess these kinds of risk factors (Clark, et al, 2011). They are usually charged a higher than standard rate because of the added risks that they possess. Examples of people that may be in this category are those who possess a history of high blood pressure, diabetes, drugs and alcohol. Or maybe they engage in some dangerous activities like skydiving or rock climbing.
Preferred risk. Applicants classified as preferred risks are those who are expected to have an above average life expectancy (Clark, et al, 2011). People in this group are preferred by the insurance companies because of their health history and good habits. They are usually offered a lower rate or preferred rate. Applicants that may belong to this group are nonsmokers or people that have a good health history.
Uninsurable risk. Individuals categorized as uninsurable or declined risk are those that pose a risk that is too great for the insurance company to cover. The applicants' conditions are so rare or unique that the company may not be able to arrive at a suitable premium (Clark, et al, 2011), so their policies are generally declined. Examples of this category include people who have a serious illness and people who conduct illegal activities.
受新冠疫情影响，很多大学将课程转为网课，还宣布了新的课程评分标准。传统的美国大学评分标准为：ABCDF，更改后的评分标准为：Pass or Fail。得知澳大利亚部分大学宣布：本学期不会挂掉任何一名学生，大量的在美学生对此很开心，收到新的课程评分标准后，便申请将自己的评分等级换成P/F。
美国大学邮件通知
学生可以选择更改ABCD的评分等级，到P/F评分等级，本学期的P/F评分等级不会影响学生原有的GPA成绩。大部分大学要求学生要考到D（某些学校要求C）或者以上的成绩才能被记入Pass（及格）。也就是说，成绩低于D/E/F的学生会被按照Fail来处理。多位名校任教的教授表示：大学不会因为在线教学方式，便松懈对教学质量的把控、学生学习主动性和能力的考查。
如果学生励志要读研，P/F评分标准并不是很有利的选择：以常春藤为首的美国名校对于申请者GPA成绩是有明确要求的，必须满足具体的ABC等级，才算达到硕士项目的基本录取标准。一直以来，GPA成绩都是申请研究生的重要考量因素之一，建议有读研想法的学生不要放弃任何提升自己GPA的机会。
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